Category: Places

Civilizations come and go. Cities rise and fall. Even great empires flourish for a time, and then inevitably, decline. The Roman Empire, which at its height, stretched from Britain to the Middle East, from northern Europe to West Africa, is a prime example of this cycle. But, fortunately for those of us who love digging into the past, the footprints of those who have gone before us do not disappear into oblivion. Cobbled roads, broken stones, lone archways, and bits of decorated tiles remind the people of today of those past glories.

In the first century AD, in the foothills of Mr. Zerhoun in the Middle Atlas Mountains, Roman colonists, bent on expanding their empire, developed an outpost north of what is now Meknes, Morocco. Colonists pushing into new territory rarely find empty land, and Roman colonists settling the fertile plains surrounding the Khoumane and Fertase? Rivers were no exception. The Amazigh tribes had called this land home since Neolithic times, and the Carthaginans had a city in this spot since the third century BCEBut to the Roman colonists the nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples of the area were ‘Berbers” (barbarians) and the land was perfect for their expansion into Northwest Africa. 

The city the Romans built is called Volubilis. It served as the capital of the Roman province of Mauritania (Land of the Moors). By the third century AD, some 20,000 people called Volubilis home, and Latin was the primary language heard in the streets.

The huge site is now in ruins, the remarkable ability of Roman engineers and artisans is evident in the city plan. The site is only 30% excavated but it is still possible to see the layout of the streets, the public baths and fountains, and the homes of the plebs and the wealthier merchants and officials. These latter homes were elaborate villas with well-preserved, beautiful mosaic tiles floors. The mosaics depict various mythological scenes that give hints of the room’s purpose and insight into Roman sense and sensibilities. The houses are now named by the mosaics found, for example, the House of Orpheus, Dionysus and the Four Seasons, or  the House of the Dog. 

Rome granted the residents of Volubilis Roman citizenship and temporary tax-free status, and the city was able to thrive for a couple hundred years. Eventually, however, pressure from the native Amazigh, and internal issues in Rome, caused Rome to withdraw from the city. Even without Rome’s direct oversight, the multicultural population of Volubilis, comprising Jews, Berbers, Syrians, Greeks, Christians, and Romans, continued to follow Roman practices, speak Latin, and trade in lucrative products such as olive oil.

The Roman influence remained strong for several centuries, until the Arab conquest of North Africa in the seventh century. The Arabs destroyed the churches, and moved the capital from Volubilis to Fes. Though it no longer held a position of prime importance, the city continued to be inhabited for several more centuries. Some buildings were neglected and fell into ruin. Some marble and dressed stone was recommissioned into new projects. 

Then, in 1755, the huge Lisbon earthquake devastated the city. Houses crumbled, arches fell, pillars toppled. The forces of nature took only minutes to topple the magnificent legacy of the great Roman Empire..

Today the site is hot and dusty, deserted save for tourists and birds.Grasses and thorn bushes have invaded.  The remaining walls are crumbling. Wind whistles through empty arches. The Romans are gone, as is their empire. The Amazigh no longer live in this ruined city (though they still inhabit the surrounding countryside.) 2000 years after colonization, the war between empire and nature continues. Nature seems bent on taking over, but even after all these years, nature still has not totally erased the memory of the civilization that reigned in these foothills.

The ruins serve to remind the people of today that all things, even Great Empires such as Rome, are ephemeral. We of America should probably keep that in mind.

Recently, I’ve come back from a trip to Morocco. On my departure and my return, I was blessed with well-wishes from family and friends. “Safe travels,” they said with a heartfelt hug ( or the more grammatically grating, ‘Travel safe’). As I smiled and returned their hugs, it occurred to me to wonder, when did ‘safe travels’ replace ‘bon voyage’ as the wish given a traveler? As if the inherent danger of travel is of more concern (or interest?) than the desire for  good times.

I have no clear answer to this, though I suspect the 9/11 attack had a profound effect on our national psyche.

In any case, in spite of the exotic impression people might have of Morocco, the country is remarkably safe. There are, of course, pickpockets, such as a traveler will find in any tourist spot, and there are some disputes over the country’s borders. However, I found the people very helpful and friendly. Morocco is an amazing country, with a fascinating history. The melange of cultures creates a multi-layered society; a predominately Muslim country, where Christians, Jews, Muslims, and people with any other beliefs, live together in peace.

Moroccan culture has developed over the centuries with many different influences. The area has been inhabited at least since Neolithic times. Various indigenous tribes developed a thriving civilization with their own writing and a strong trade relationship with the Phoenicians and later, Carthage. The descendants of these earliest inhabitants call themselves Amazigh (plural Imazighn), which comprise several different groups including the Tuareg. The Romans called them Mauri (which became Moors) or Berbers (which meant barbarians.) 

By 300 BCE the kingdom of Mauretania developed. Mauretania was an independent Berber kingdom. The bustling trade possibilities and fertile lands of North Africa enticed Romans to expand into the areas, though they controlled mostly by trade networks rather than military expansion.  By 33 BCE, the area was considered first a client of Rome, and later a vassal state. The fertile lands of Morocco helped feed the teeming population of Rome.

Christianity moved into Morocco in the 2nd century CE. Rome’s influence waned with the incursions of Vandals, Goths, and Visigoths, who eventually caused the Fall of Rome. By the 4th century CE most of the Romanized area had converted to Christianity. Many Jews lived in the area also.

Beginning around 700 CE, Arabs swept across Northern Africa, gradually converting most of the indigenous population to Islam. The Arab/Berber dynasties of Morocco developed with Arab and Amazigh leaders. Morocco was never controlled by the Ottoman Empire.

As Europe looked for expansion, the Portuguese, Spanish, and French fought for control of the area. Morocco became a French protectorate in 1912 and regained independence in 1956.

Over the centuries, these merging cultures have formed the fabric of modern Morocco, a delightful kaleidoscope encompassing a land as varied as its people. From the dry desert dunes and date palm oases  to the cedar forests and rocky slopes of the high Atlas, from the winding alleys of the old medinas to the smooth, sweeping sand beaches of the north Atlantic, Morocco invites and welcomes visitors to this intriguing land. A place for safe and good travels! Bon voyage indeed!

Examining the Legend

As a child I idolized Davy Crockett and Daniel Boone, especially as portrayed by Fess Parker on television and transformed into legend by American Frontier lore and tall tales.

In my mind, they lived at the same time (the ‘old days’) Both wore coonskin caps, alternately fought and befriended Indians, and lived on the wild frontier (which I thought was somewhere vaguely west).  In reality, Boone (1734-1820) was born almost fifty years before Crocket (1786-1836) and died sixteen years earlier. Both were politicians as well as frontiersmen. Daniel Boone fought in the Revolutionary War, and lived to tell the tales. Davy Crockett fought in the Texas War for Independence, and died at the Alamo.

Back then, Crockett’s death always struck me as particularly tragic– a young adventurer struck down in his prime. I read of his exploits as a legendary hero, killed fighting for liberty. It was romantic (in the Byronic sense). And because of my interest (obsession?) with Davy Crockett, I became fascinated by the stories of the Alamo, the site of the most famous battle for Texan independence. I read of the heroic stand made by a handful of American heroes who all died protecting Texas from the cruel Mexican army invaders. Like Crocket’s own larger-than life tale, the stories I heard of the Alamo stretch the truth into more legend than fact.

I had an opportunity in December to visit the Alamo in San Antonio, Texas.  On a warm sunny day, I stood in line with a couple hundred people for a timed entrance ticket. The place was crowded, in spite of Covid-19 restrictions limiting access. As I wandered through the well-laid out exhibit hall, the shaded gardens, and the white, limestone church, I learned more of the true history of the place.

What is now known as the Alamo was built in 1744-1758, as a Spanish mission (Mision San Antonio de Valero) with the purpose of ‘educating’ (converting) the Indians. Much of the building collapsed before it was finished.Still, it was used as a mission and church until 1793, when it was abandoned. In 1803, ten years later, the compound became a fortress which came to be known as the Alamo, meaning ‘cottonwood’ in Spanish. This fairly small, fairly obscure, place gained its fame from the battle fought there in 1836.

The early 1800’s were a time of great upheaval for Mexico, which included Texas at that time. Mexico’s war to separate from Spain lasted for years, with Spain only recognizing Mexico’s independence in 1836. Because of the riches in Mexico (ie silver), the opportunities for trade and good lands, many Anglo-Americans moved out of the United States and into Texas during this period.

Mexico’s government grew less and less tolerant of these Anglo immigrants (called Texians). Texians, in turn, chafed under Mexican rule. One among many grievances was that Mexico had abolished slavery in 1830. The Texians did not want to give up their ‘property’. Throughout 1835, the Texians, along with many volunteers from the United States, and some ‘Tejanos’ (Mexican citizens of Texas), defeated several small Mexican garrisons in Texas. But the resulting government was disorganized and ineffective. General Santa Ana vowed to defeat these rebels once and for all. With a huge army, Santa Ana met the Texian contingent at the Alamo and defeated them, killing nearly all of the Alamo defenders. (The women, children, some Mexican citizens, and slaves were released. Survivors who surrendered were executed.)

This battle served to rally the Texian Army, and they went on to soundly defeat Santa Ana. The winners declared the land was now independent, the Republic of Texas. However, Mexico, enraged at what they saw as U.S. interference in their land, refused to recognize the Republic of Texas.  The U.S. annexation of Texas as the 28th state in 1845 led to the Mexican-America War.

In spite of the legends proclaiming their heroism, the defenders of the Alamo could be considered an immigrant take-over of Mexican land, not the heroic last stand of a people fighting invaders. History is often the stories told by the winners. In this case, although the Texians lost at the Alamo, they later won the war, giving them the power to reshape the telling to their advantage. The story of the Alamo should probably be taken as a cautionary tale: legends can lie.